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The major classes of nutrients are water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Each has an important place in our food plan, and overall health status is dependent on the proper amounts and mix of these nutrients.

Water

Water is generally ignored as a special nutrient, yet even a few days without water (leading to a loss of 9 to 12 percent of your body weight) is dangerous and can lead to death since 60 to 70 percent of your body weight is water. This is not the case for other nutrients, which we can survive without for considerable periods of time. Water is obtained from solid foods as well as from beverages. Some vegetables, such as potatoes, peas, and lettuce, are 75 to 96 percent water by weight.

Water must be replaced as it is lost during exercise to allow for sweat production. Failure to do so increases the chances of dehydration and eventually heat injury.

The amount of water stored in the body varies with one's diet. Carbohydrates require water for storage in the body. For example, 2.7 pounds of water is needed to store a pound of carbohydrate in the liver and muscles. When you begin a low-carbohydrate diet, the body's carbohydrate store decreases quickly over the next day or two, and the water stored with the carbohydrate is also lost. This helps to explain why you experience a rapid loss of body weight when you first begin such a diet. Keep in mind that you must have a negative balance of 3,500 calories to lose one pound of adipose (fat) tissue, a goal that virtually no one can achieve in one day.

Water is also very important in activating our fiber intake. The recommended 20 to 35 grams of daily fiber requires about six to eight glasses of water to be effective. Your daily water intake depends on the amount of calories you expend. You need about one milliliter of water (1 ml = 1 cc = 1/1000 L = 1/30 oz; 1 glass = 8 oz = 240 ml) for every calorie you burn. You lose water through sweat (24 oz), urine, feces, and breath air (12 oz) daily even when you are inactive.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are a primary source of immediate energy in the diet, containing about four calories per gram. In the average American diet they make up only 45 percent of the calories, although the goal is 55 to 60 percent. Carbohydrates include foods that are digestible and can be used for energy (e.g., starches and sugars) and those that contain indigestible fiber. Sugars are found in jams, soft drinks, and milk, while starches are found in cereals, breads, and vegetables. Fiber is an important component of the unprocessed (unrefined) carbohydrates we consume. Water-insoluble fiber found in leafy vegetables; roots; beans; unpeeled fruits; and whole grains such as oats, barley, rice, corn, and wheat (with sufficient water) forms bulk, softens stools, and keeps intestinal contents moving. It also slows absorption of sugars, carcinogens, and bile acids, which enhance the absorption of fats. Water-soluble fiber found in fruits, grains, seeds, and vegetables binds to bile acids and decreases the absorption of cholesterol.

Foods containing the highest fiber are kidney beans (9.3 grams per 3/4 cup), all-bran cereal (8.5 grams per 1/3 cup), and dried prunes (1.6 grams per prune). A daily intake of 10 to 13 grams of fiber per 1,000 calories is recommended. If your diet is not rich in fiber, you should increase your intake gradually to prevent gastrointestinal upsets. With sufficient fiber in your diet, your stools will float in the toilet bowl.

The following changes in diet are recommended to achieve the dietary goal of a reduction in refined and processed sugars and an increase in starches (complex carbohydrates) and fiber.

Decrease consumption of soft drinks, cakes, cookies, and other foods containing sugar.

Increase intake of whole-grain breads; cereals; fruits; and vegetables, including beans, lentils, and peas.

Rapid weight-loss diets simply cause a loss of body water that must, and eventually will, be replaced. Remember, it is the size of the negative caloric balance that is important in weight loss, not the type of diet. Given the dietary goals described previously, carbohydrates are the last food you should decrease in your diet when you plan to reduce body fat. Rapid weight-loss diets are usually very low in calories, lower than basal metabolic requirements. These diets cause an automatic reduction of metabolism to conserve energy, which in turn significantly decreases caloric expenditure. As a result, weight loss declines. We recommend that you compensate for an increase in complex carbohydrates, and therefore caloric intake, with a decrease in fat intake.

Fats

Fats are a primary source of energy, containing more than twice as many calories per gram (9 calories) as carbohydrates. Our main concern with fat is the structure of fatty acids it contains. Following is a brief description of fatty acids. Foods containing saturated fatty acids contain cholesterol, are solid at room temperature, and generally are derived from animal foods. Exceptions are coconut oil and palm oil. Saturated fatty acids raise both LDL-C and HDL-C.

Foods containing monounsaturated fatty acids (MUSFA, one double bond) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUSFA, more than one double bond) are lower in cholesterol, are liquid at room temperature, and in general are derived from plant foods (e.g., olive oil, a MUSFA). Linoleic acid, also known as N-6 fatty acid, is a PUSFA and belongs to a class of essential fatty acids that are mainly derived from cold-water fish (e.g., salmon, black cod, tuna), milk, and breast milk. Corn, sunflower, peanut, and soybean oils also contain PUSFA. PUSFA lowers LDL-C and causes no change in HDL-C. MUSFA lowers LDL-C and increases HDL-C.

Eskimos rarely suffer from heart disease or stroke despite their high-fat diet. The major source of fat in their diet is fish. Fish, one of the leanest sources of protein, provides polyunsaturated fat, which is structurally quite different from the fat we eat with red meat or chicken.

N-3 fatty acids are derived from plant and seafood sources. Plant sources provide a medium-chain fatty acid. Seafood provides long-chain fatty acids. Plant sources of N-3 fatty acids have been shown to protect against coronary artery disease more than seafood sources. These fatty acids lower LDL-C and raise HDL-C.

Vegetable oils become hardened with partial hydrogenation, forming trans fatty acids, a major fat component of commercially cooked foods such as french fries, cookies, crackers, and margarine. Trans fatty acids raise LDL-C and lower HDL-C and are known as the foods most detrimental to heart and blood vessels.

Note. Recent studies have shown that one's intake of saturated and trans fatty acids can be reduced by half by eliminating butter, margarine, dairy products containing 2 percent fat or whole milk, and meats with fat.

Although there is no difference in the number of calories per gram for liquid or solid fats, there are major differences between the two in terms of good health. The consumption of large amounts of saturated dietary fats is associated with higher rates of heart disease. It should be no surprise, then, that the recommended dietary goals include a reduction in total fat consumption to 30 percent or less and an additional cutback in saturated fats to 510 percent. This is also true for cholesterol (another type of fat), for which a dietary goal of less than 300 milligrams per day has been established.

To accomplish these goals, the following guidelines are recommended:

Eat more lean meat, fish, poultry, and dry beans and peas as sources of protein.

Use skim or low-fat milk and milk products.

Limit your consumption of eggs and organ meats.

Limit your intake of fats and oils, especially those high in saturated fats, such as butter, lard, shortening, and foods containing palm and coconut oils.

Broil, bake, or boil rather than fry, and trim fat off meat.

Protein

Protein, like carbohydrates, provides four calories per gram; protein, however, is not viewed as a primary energy source. Protein is an important nutrient because it contains amino acids necessary for tissue growth, development, and repair. High-quality protein is found in eggs, meat, fish, milk, poultry, cheese, and soybeans. Grains, vegetables, seeds, and nuts provide lower-quality protein; more of this is required per day than the higher-quality protein.

The protein requirement for an adult is only 0.8 gram per kilogram of body weight, so a 154-pound (70-kilogram) person needs only 56 grams, or about two ounces, per day. A rapidly growing baby requires 2.2 grams per kilogram of body weight. About 12 percent of the average American's food intake is protein, which is sufficient to meet this standard.

Vitamins

Vitamins are special nutrients required in very small amounts but vital for normal function. They are classified as fat soluble or water soluble based on their ability to dissolve in lipids or in water. Fat-soluble vitamins include A, D, E, and K. Because of their solubility, they can be stored in the body and are not needed every day since you can "catch up" on other days. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in body fat. A potential problem with them is that if too much is taken in over a long period of time, they can cause hypervitaminosis, a toxicity condition that can lead to nervous disorders, gastrointestinal problems, and damage to your liver and kidneys.

Water-soluble vitamins, which include the B vitamins, C, folic acid, pantothenic acid, and biotin, are much less likely to induce hypervitaminosis, since any excess is excreted in the urine. However, high levels of water-soluble vitamins can also be toxic and should be avoided. Due to the high turnover of water-soluble vitamins, you need to replace your supplies on a daily basis.

Requirements are different for men, children, women, and pregnant or breast-feeding women. Although these are the values you can use to evaluate the adequacy of your diet, do not expect to meet each requirement on a daily basis. Evaluate your diet over a period of several days to see if your intake is adequate on the average.

Should you take a vitamin supplement? If you are eating a varied diet containing the major food groups (discussion follows), you do not need a vitamin supplement. If you want to make sure you're getting all the vitamins, taking a single multivitamin every other day will generally not cause problems. However, commonly advertised and consumed vitamin supplements that exceed RDAs or the "megavitamins" can lead to hypervitaminosis, a serious health problem. Following is a list of vitamins and the results of taking them in excess.

Vitamin Ablindness and fetus abnormalities

Vitamin Ckidney stones and the destruction of B12 in food

Vitamin Dkidney stones

Vitamin Einterference with the function of vitamin K

Niacinliver injury

It is better to focus your attention on eating a balanced diet to meet these vitamin needs in the long run than to depend on a supplement. Remember, by eating a balanced diet, you also fulfill protein and mineral requirements.

Minerals

Minerals are chemical elements that, like vitamins, are needed in small amounts for normal health. They are divided into two classes: major minerals and trace minerals. Major minerals include calcium, which is needed for bones; potassium and sodium, which are needed for nerve and muscle function; and magnesium, which is needed for many of the body's enzymes to function. Potassium and calcium also play an important role in the function of the heart muscle. Trace minerals include iron, which is needed by hemoglobin to transport oxygen in the red blood cells; iodine, which is necessary for the hormone thyroxine, needed to keep our metabolic rates at the right level; and zinc, selenium, copper, and others, which are needed for certain enzymes to function properly.

You can achieve the daily requirements for most of these minerals by eating a varied and balanced diet. However, there is some concern that women do not take in sufficient amounts of iron and calcium; women may opt for supplementation of these minerals.

Table salt is sodium chloride, 40 percent of which is sodium. A teaspoon of salt contains about 2.3 grams (2,300 milligrams) of sodium. Since adults only need 220 milligrams of sodium, it is best to keep our sodium intake as low as possible. One should keep in mind that all foods contain sodium. Thus, we take in sufficient sodium even if salt is not added to our food before or after cooking. Condiments and salad dressings contain huge amounts of sodium per teaspoonful: baking soda contains 821 milligrams; meat tenderizer contains 1,750 milligrams; one dill pickle contains 928 milligrams; and soy sauce contains 1,029 milligrams. Among natural foods (per serving), milk (126 mg), yogurt (105 mg), meat (65 mg), raw carrots (25 mg), spinach (22 mg), and cornmeal (43 mg) are rich sources of sodium. These natural foods also provide other important minerals such as potassium and magnesium. The following guidelines are recommended to reduce salt intake:

Use minimal salt in cooking.

Add herbs and spices instead of salt to food.

Cut back on canned, frozen, and processed foods. Even low-calorie diet dinners contain large amounts of sodium. Before buying these foods, read their labels for sodium content.

Antioxidants and Prevention

Our bodies naturally produce ''free radicals," which damage cells by oxidation, enhance aging, and promote cancer development. The body's natural defense against these chemicals is limited by exposure to cigarette smoke, air pollution, radiation, sunlight, and stress. Oxidation also plays an important role in the buildup of cholesterol in arteries. Many studies have shown that antioxidants found in vitamins A (beta carotene), C, and E and minerals such as selenium; flavonoids in citrus fruits; sulfides in garlic and onions; isothiocyanates in cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower; and phenolic compounds in tea prevent the development of cancers. Isoflavones in soy products and lignin in whole wheat suppress estrogen levels, which play an important role in the development of breast cancer.